Journal of Transport Geography 60 (2017) 110–118

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Transport Geography

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jtrangeo

Spatial reorganization of urban logistics system and its impacts: Case of Tokyo

Takanori Sakai ^a,⁎, Kazuya Kawamura ^a, Tetsuro Hyodo ^b

a Department of Urban Planning and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 412 S. Peoria St. Suite 215, Chicago, IL 60607-7065, USA

b Department of Logistics and Information Engineering, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 2-1-6, Etchujima, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8533, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 11 October 2016

Received in revised form 2 March 2017

Accepted 3 March 2017

Available online 9 March 2017

Keywords: Freight Logistics sprawl

Decentralization Land use

a b s t r a c t

We use the comprehensive freight survey data from 2003 and 2013 to analyze how the restructuring of logistics industry that occurred amid the broad trend of decentralization in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area has affected the efﬁciency of truck shipments. The analysis reveals that the negative effects of the outward migration of logistics facilities were offset by the increase in average shipment load and efﬁcient spatial distribution of logistics facili- ties that occurred in parallel with the decentralization. As a result, the truck shipment efﬁciency improved by 4%.

Introduction

The spatial distribution of logistics facilities (e.g. distribution centers and warehouses) observed in large cities around the world, especially in North American and European cities, is becoming a germane topic of discussion for researchers and practitioners engaged in transport and urban planning. The advances in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and globalization have led to the evolutions in logis- tics operations and supply chain management practices and also the restructuring of urban freight systems (Hesse and Rodrigue, 2004). While facilities with larger footprints are desired for modern supply chains, appropriate sites are rarely found near the urban centers where many activities are concentrated, trafﬁc is congested, and the land value is prohibitively high. As a result, logistics sprawl, “the move- ment of logistics facilities away from urban centers” (Dablanc et al., 2014) has occurred in many metropolitan regions. The outward migra- tion of logistics facilities is a concern because it may lead to an increase in vehicle-kilometer-traveled (VKT) and exacerbate negative externali- ties, such as trafﬁc congestion, carbon emissions, local air pollution, in- frastructure damage and trafﬁc accidents.

In recent years, a large number of studies of logistics sprawl have been conducted in various cities around the world. In most studies, the outward migration of logistics facilities was veriﬁed. On the other hand, studies that measure trafﬁc impacts of such outward migration have been almost nonexistent due to the fact that such study requires

⁎ Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: tsakai3@uic.edu (T. Sakai), kazuya@uic.edu (K. Kawamura), hyodo@kaiyodai.ac.jp (T. Hyodo).

shipment data at a reasonable level of geographic resolution if not at the facility level. One such study is Sakai et al. (2015) that use the Tokyo Metropolitan Freight Survey (TMFS) from 2003 to examine the inefﬁciencies associated with the outward migration of logistics facili- ties observed for the Tokyo Metropolitan Area (TMA). Their analysis identiﬁes the outward migration of logistics facilities in the TMA and also ﬁnds higher shipment inefﬁciencies for the logistics facilities that are located far from the urban center. However, the study is limited in that it relies on the data from a single year; especially, the changes in the spatial distribution of shipment demand cannot be measured accu- rately without the data from more than one time period.

In 2013, the latest urban freight establishment survey (2013 TMFS) was conducted in the TMA with a survey design similar to the 2003 ver- sion of the TMFS. In this study, we use both 2003 and 2013 TMFS to overcome the limitations of Sakai et al. (2015) and expand the analysis to reveal how the outward migration of logistics facilities inﬂuences truck shipments. We combine the TMFS data with other socio-economic data to analyze the changes in urban structure, including the distribu- tions of shipment demand locations, and urban freight system in the TMA. As far as we know, this is the ﬁrst detailed diagnosis of the dynam- ics of the migration of logistics facilities and its impacts on truck ship- ments based on the comprehensive freight survey data from two different years, and we believe this paper contributes beneﬁcial insights for the research on the spatial distribution of logistics facilities.

The rest of the paper consists of the following contents; in Section 2, we introduce the literature on the structural changes that modern logis- tics practices have gone through in the past few decades, the measure- ments of the outward migration of logistics facilities, and the impacts of such migration; in Section 3, the data and the methodology of the

原文期刊英文信息

作者：Takanori Sakai , Kazuya Kawamura , Tetsuro Hyodo

城市物流系统的空间重组及其影响--以东京为例

伊利诺伊大学芝加哥分校，东京都海洋科技大学

本文使用2003年和2013年的综合货运调查数据来分析在东京都市区广泛的疏散化趋势中发生的物流业重组如何影响卡车运输的效率。分析表明，物流设施向外迁移的负面影响被平均运输负荷的增加和与分散化同时发生的物流设施的有效空间分布所抵消。结果，卡车出货效率提高了4％。

1、介绍

近年来，在世界各个城市进行了大量的物流无序扩张研究。在大多数研究中，物流设施的向外迁移得到了验证。另一方面，由于这样的研究要求在合理的地理分辨率水平下（如果不是在设施层面）运输数据，那么测量这种向外迁移的交通影响的研究几乎不存在。其中一项研究是Sakai等人。（2015年）使用2003年的东京都市货运调查（TMFS）来研究与东京都市区（TMA）观察到的物流设施向外迁移相关的低效率。他们的分析确定了TMA中物流设施的向外迁移，并且还为远离城市中心的物流设施提供了更高的运输效率。然而，该研究的局限性在于它依赖于一年的数据;特别是，如果没有超过一个时期的数据，就无法准确地测量出货需求空间分布的变化。

本文的其余部分包括以下内容; 在第2节中，本文介绍了现代物流实践在过去几十年中所经历的结构变化，物流设施向外迁移的测量以及这种迁移的影响; 在第3节中，讨论了分析的数据和方法; 在第4节中，给出了分析结果，并讨论了结果; 最后，第5节总结了论文，总结了发现及其含义。

在本节中，本文首先简要概述了过去二三十年间发生的物流和供应链行业的变化以及相关影响。讨论是有意义的，因为有很多关于这个主题的参考文献，包括这里提到的。然后，本文对物流设施向外迁移的研究进行了更详细的回顾，然后讨论了现有文献中的差距。

在过去的二三十年间，物流业务的演变导致了物流设施（如配送中心和仓库）的位置和设计的变化。 Hesse和Rodrigue（2004）认为，物流活动的各个组成部分已经适应了全球化进程和ICT的创新。全球化或全球生产网络的兴起（Coe et al。，2004），需要生产空间位置的分散，这需要整合各种物流组件的供应链管理，并实现复杂的生产机构和运输。如果不通过信息通信技术管理信息流来连接供应链的不同组成部分并使其无缝运行，就无法实现这种整合过程。物流运营和基于需求方信息的供应链管理的转变，而不是供应方信息，使物流运营商能够通过降低库存成本来最大限度地降低总运营成本。这导致需要现代物流设施，旨在以高效的方式处理更高的吞吐量，而不是将产品存储为最重要的目标。这种物流演化过程有几个经验证据支持（例如Allen等，2012; Hesse和Rodrigue，2004; McKinnon，2009）。物流作业的变化提高了具有良好交通能力的土地价值，并且相对便宜和可扩展，作为新物流设施的潜在场所（Hesse，2004）。 Wachs（2013）认为，物流业务的发展也支持城市中心的重组。他认为，日益密集的城市中心的活动是由有效的货运系统维持的，尽管这种关系经常被美国新城市主义的支持者所忽视。

鉴于全球城市增长趋势以及许多城市城市中心的人口密度和土地价格的上涨，这是一个合理的假设，即前面提到的产业转型导致了物流设施的向外迁移。近年来的大量研究衡量了物流设施的向外迁移，包括巴黎（Dablanc和Rakotonarivo，2010; Heitz和Dablanc，2015），多伦多（Woudsma等，2016），亚特兰大（Dablanc和Ross，2012），洛杉矶和西雅图（Dablanc等，2014），东京（Sakai等，2015）和苏黎世（Todesco等，2016）。这些研究通常将物流设施与参考中心位置（在大多数研究中，几何中心）的距离与商业机构或人口的距离进行比较。例如，Dablanc和Ross（2012）发现，在1998年至2008年间，所有企业与几何中心的平均距离增加了1.3英里（2.1公里），而仓储设施的平均距离增加了2.8英里（4.5公里）。亚特兰大都会区。他们将这种现象称为“相对（物流）迁移”，这被定义为物流设施向外迁移的明显程度。与整个企业相比。与亚特兰大一样，大多数其他城市（不包括西雅图）都经历过物流设施的向外迁移，尽管这些城市的细节和过程并不一定相同。一些研究还关注运营商类型的设施分布之间的差异。例如，Todesco等人。（2016）发现存储和快递服务机构的外向移民，但不包括货运和邮政服务的移民。 Heitz和Beziat（2016）比较了巴黎地区的包裹行业和其他物流活动的分布，发现前者更集中。 Cidell（2010）针对美国最大的大都市区，并分析了全国和大都市区内仓储企业的位置。她发现，在美国的许多城市，郊区县的仓储企业数量增长速度快于中央城市的数量和百分比，并证实了1986 - 2005年期间大多数城市的分散化。

2.3本研究的目的