偏误分析、中介语和第二语言习得外文翻译资料

 2022-12-27 16:27:26

Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language

Acquisition

S. P. Corder

1.In the course of learning a second language, learners regularly produce utterances in speech and writing which judged by the rules of the second language are erroneous, or ill-formed. Traditionally the attitude to errors was that they were a sign that the learner had not yet mastered the rules he was taught and that they were therefore to be dealt with by repeating the explanations until they disappeared.If learning were efficient ,errors would not occur. This point of view gave way later to the notion that errors were an indication of the difficulties the learners had with certain aspects of the language, which could be explained by the persistence of the habits of the mother tongue and their transfer to the new language (Lado, 1957). In this case they were to be dealt with not by further explanation of the target language rules ,but by more intensive drilling of the sound patterns and sentence structure of the language.Errors were the result of interference and in an ideal teaching situation couldbe avoided (Lee, 1970).The difficulties of learners could be predicted by a comparison or contrast between the structures of the mother tongue and the target language and appropriate steps could then be taken to minimise the

difficulty and reduce the interference. From this notion has developed the whole industry of cohtrastive linguistics, with research projects and regular publications of results in a number of countries. The body of literature in this field is very large and although increasingly seen as related to the field here being reviewed, merits separate treatment. Several bibliographies on the topic are available (cf. Thiem, 1969). For an authoritative recent statement of the classical position see Nickel (1971 a) and for a critical study of the state of the art, Eliasson (1973).

In more recent years doubts have increasingly been voiced about the status and applicability of contrastive linguistic studies to language teaching (Ritchie,1967; Nemser, 1971; Slama-Cazacu, 1971; Dulay amp; Burt, 1974rf), Firstly because not all difficulties and errors can be traced back to the influence of the mother tongue (Richards, 1971a; Dulay amp; Burt, 1973; Duskova, 1969) and consequently other explanations must be sought; secondly, what contrastive analysis predicted as a difficulty did not always in practice turn out to be so(Nickel, 19716); and thirdly, the purely theoretical problems of making adequate comparisons of languages made the whole operation of doubtful

validity (Hamp, 1968; Van Buren, 1974; Krzeszowski, 1974).As a result the theoretical basis for such studies has been questioned and its value for language teaching reappraised. Wardhaugh (1970) makes a clear distinction between thestrong and weak hypothesis of contrastive linguistics: The strong hypothesis states that the difficulties of the learner can be predicted by a systematic contrastive analysis and teaching materials can then be devised to meet these difficulties.The weak hypothesis claims no more than an explanatory role for contrastive linguistics: where difficulties are evident from the errors made by learners, then comparison between the mother tongue and the second language may help to explain them. A reasoned reply to all these criticisms has been made by Nehls (1974) and notably by James (1971 a) in which he argues that analysts have never explicitlymade many of the claims for which they are attacked. Nevertheless there has been a gradual abandonment by contrastive analysts since 1968 of the stronger claims and, increasingly, research projects in this area have broadened their scope in two directions: firstly towards more theoretical objectives in language typology and the search for universals (always a preoccupation of one branch of linguistic enquiry); and secondly towards psycholinguistic orientation concerned with the explanation of second language Acquisition.Here it merged significantly with error analysis as we shall see. This new development of contrastive analysis has been called contact analysis(Nemser amp; Slama-Cazacu, 1970; Slama-Cazacu, 1971). These authors suggest that the task of contact analysis is to explain and predict language learner behaviour, with the concrete aim of developing a more scientific approach to the processes of foreign language teaching

2.Error analysis

There are now a number of general statements of the state of the art which give a general comprehensive account of what error analysis is concerned with:Nickel (1972) in German; Lange (1974) in French; and Corder (1973),Svartvik (1973), Richards and Sampson (1974), and Schumann and Stenson (1975) in English.

Contrastive analysis developed in a climate in linguistics and psychology which can bebroadly characterised as structural and behaviourist. Structuralism in linguistics took the view that the structure of every language was sui generis and therefore to be described in its own terms. Consequently it followed logically that languages could not be compared. It was therefore somewhat paradoxical to attempt to account for learners difficulties, which were clearly related to features of their mother tongue and explained psychologically as the transfer of their mother-tongue habits by undertaking a theoretically impossible task.With post-structuralist developments in linguistics, associated with the name of Chomsky, a willingness to seek common or even universal

features in human languages became again a goal of linguistics, but now explicitly explained in psychological terms as inherent properties of the human mind.

Language acquisition and second-language learning could now be approached as a problem of cognitive learning and the possession of a second langua

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偏误分析、中介语和第二语言习得

Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language Acquisition

彼德·科德

1. 在学习第二语言的过程中,学习者经常会在口语和写作方面出现一些有规律的说话方式,这养的说话方式被第二语言规则认为是错误的或者不合规范的。传统上,人们对待错误的态度是:错误是学习者尚未掌握学习规则的标志。因此,需要通过重复的解释来处理,直到错误消失。如果学习是有效的,错误将不会发生。后来,这种观点演变成:错误是学习者在具体的语言方面遇到的困难的暗示。也许可以这样解释:母语使用的持久性习惯会转移到新的语言学习,(拉多,1957)。在这种情况下,处理它们的方式不是进一步的解释目的语规则,而是他们处理没有进一步的解释目标语言的规则,通过更多的声音模式和语言的句子结构的加强训练。错误是干涉造成的,在一个理想的教学情况下,是可以避免的。(李,1970)。通过比较或对比母语和目标语的结构,是可以预测学习者学习的困难,可以恰当的措施降低困难和减少干扰。这个概念,使得整个“对比语言学”领域得到发展,在许多国家出现了研究项目和期刊出版物。在这个领域的文献著作非常多,虽然越来越多的著作被视为相关领域,正在接受审查,但值得区别对待。几个在此主题方面的参考书目(cf。提姆,1969):最近,一篇关于“古典”地位的权威论述,见于尼克尔 的著作,(1971),一个关于“艺术状况”的关键的研究,埃利亚松(1973)。

最近几年,越来越多的人开始怀疑语言教学方面的语言对比研究的地位和适用性。(里奇,1967;,1971;Slama-Cazacu,1967;Dulay amp;伯特,1974 rf),首先,因为并不是所有的困难和错误可以追溯到是受母语的影响,(理查兹,1971;Dulay amp;伯特,1973;Duskova,1969),因此必须寻求其他的解释;其次,对比分析预测的困难并不总是在实践中被证明(Nickel,19716);第三,纯理论的问题,对语言进行充足的比较使整个操作产生怀疑性。(Hamp,1968;范布伦,1968;Krzeszowski,(1974)。结果,对于这样的研究,其理论基础已经受到质疑,对于语言教学的价值也会重新评估。Wardhaugh(1970)明确地区分了对比语言学中的强和弱的假设:强式假设指出,可以通过系统的对比分析预测学习者在学习中遇到的困难并设计教学材料来满足学生的困难。弱式假说声称:在对比语言学中,没有什么比一个解释性的角色更重要:困难是学习者犯错的证据。母语和第二语言之间的比较可能有助于解释这些错误。Nehls(1974)已经对这些批评做了一个合理的回复,尤其是詹姆斯(1971),他认为分析师从来没有明确地对他们受到的攻击做出这么多的解释。然而,从1968年后,对比分析学家逐渐开始放弃强势假说。渐渐地,这一领域的研究项目在这两个方向扩大了他们的范围:首先是在语言类型学方面做更多的理论目标和一般概念的研究,(经常是关注语言研究的一个分支);其次从心理语言学角度对第二语言习得的解释的研究。正如我们看到的它与偏误分析有机的结合起来了。对比分析的这一新的发展被称为“接触分析”(Nemser amp; Slama-Cazacu, 1970; Slama-Cazacu, 1971)。 这些作者表明“接触分析”的任务是解释和预测语言学习者的行为,具体目标是针对外语教学过程,开发一个更科学的方法。(nems amp; Slama-Cazacu,1970;Slama-Cazacu,1971)。

2.偏误分析

现在,许多关于“艺术的地位”的普遍看法给所涉及到的偏误分析一个一般的充分说明。Nickel (1972) 德国; Lange (1974) 法国; and 科德 (1973),Svartvik (1973), 理查兹和桑普森Richards and Sampson (1974), and Schumann and Stenson (1975)英国

对比分析在语言学和心理学发展起来,可以大致描述为“结构主义”和“行为主义”。“结构主义语言学”认为,每一种语言的结构是独一无二的,因此应该按其自身的特点来描述。因此从理论上讲,语言是不可以相互比较的。因此,试图统计学习者的困难显得有些自相矛盾,这显然是与学习者母语的特点有关以及从心理角度的解释转移他们的母语习惯的。通过采取一个理论上不可能完成的任务,来转化他们的母语习惯。随着后结构主义语言学的发展,(与乔姆斯基的名字),人们愿意寻找人类语言中普遍或共性的特征再一次成为了语言学界的目标。但是现在,明确地用心理学术语解释成为人类思想中的固有属性。现在,语言习得和第二语言学习被认为是认知学习中的问题,第二语言的掌握被认为是掌握一种具体知识的能力,而不是作为一种具体方式来对外界刺激反应的处理。一个语言使用者通过一些数据加工的过程拥有认知结构和犯错是学习过程的证明的假说形式,也许不仅是不可避免的而且是必要的(Dulay amp;伯特,1974 d)。现在,为了推断出这是来自于知识本身和要求的过程这一论断,使得从细节上研究学习者的语言行为变得有意义。从这样的调查中我们得到这样的认识:为了促进习得的过程,也许可以适应教学方法和教学材料。自从他们认为最有意义的数据:学习者的目标语知识的重建有可能实现,大家对研究者做的偏误分析的调查结果保持中立态度。这本来是科德提出的观点。(1967)他推测,第一语言和第二语言的习得过程基本上是相同的,并认为当第一语言和第二语言学习者存在不同的说话方式时,正如,他们明显出现的那样,这些差异可以归因于发展程度,学习的热情和学习的环境的不同。研究者被认为是在他探索和教学过程中获得帮助的某个语言的语言数据的基础上,为自己的目标语言建构语法。这个过程被称为“创意建设假说”,由Dulay和伯特在罗杰·布朗之后 提出的。他为自己创建的语法被Nemser (1971)认为是“接近系统”。这些系统很明显是暂时的。詹姆斯(1974)发现这个反常的提议,“如果这个系统始终在变化,那它就不会是原来的那个系统。”他讲述了一个虚构的“稳态”。然而,采取这种观点会否认,所有用可接受的理论模型描述的语言的可能性。所有语言都是在不断变化的。

然而,Nemser确实允许那些已经发现的稳定的“近似的系统”,例如,在他们的学习过程中,移民的语言已经达到了一定“高原”。塞林克(1972)对这种现象进行了大量的描写,他称这种现象为“石化”。詹姆斯把语言学习看做是一个方言的扩张,将Nemser提出的近似系统称为“中介语”现象,之后科德在1971年提出的这些近似的系统称为目标语言的特殊的方言。塞林克(1972)在一篇十分有影响力的文章中指出,这种现象为“中介语”。这个词强调了学习者在母语和目的语之间的语言系统结构的中间状态。同时Nemser的术语,“近似的系统”,强调了过渡和动态系统的性质。这两个术语已经在偏误分析和第二语言学习领域获得了广泛认可。

3.失误和错误

乔姆斯基做了这样一个区分:说话人对语言的了解程度(能力)以及为了达到交际目的,他是如何使用的(表达)。假设母语使用者对他们的母语系统十分了解,但他们也会出现一些本族人认为是“不合语法规则的”句子。因此,对偏误和错误进行区分是十分有必要的。偏误,通常因为人们对一些规则化的语言系统没有完全掌握,(如学习者或方言使用者);错误是对一个已知的语言系统错误的使用。(科德,1971)。通常,本族语的使用者有能力识别和纠正这样的失误或错误,这些错误并不是因为缺乏语言能力。而是因为神经生理出现故障或在编码的过程中或发音时出现问题。语言学家和那些对解释言语感知和产生有兴趣的语音学家已经在研究这些现象。这些研究使我们对言语过程,实际的产生有了新的认识,虽然与解释语言学习并不相关。然而,既然在第二语言中,语言学习者主观的出现相同的错误,那么对学习者的说话方式进行偏误分析时,区分出错误和偏误还是十分有必要的。不幸的是,所有作者并不总是仔细地观察重要术语的区别。

4.偏误分析方法

在学习中,学习者的错误的意义已经被认为是与重塑学习者的“近似系统”有关的,在他学习生涯的任何特殊阶段,而不是与提供信息的练习教师或在实践教材和课堂实践的发展有关,如纠正或补救程序。在这一点上我们必须注意,误差分析可以看到两个相关但又截然不同的功能(Zydatiss,1974;Strevens,1974)。一个是教学法和“应用”的目标,另一个是,理论,对第二语言学习过程和策略有更好的理解。将来会有越来越多的学说来介绍这些功能,但共同的目标是需要能对在任何特定的学习环境中发现的偏误的本质,有一个适当的语言解释。我们在这里关心的方法论描述。直到我们能够给出一个语言的本质学习者的错误我们不能提出教育措施来对付他们也从他们任何关于学习的过程。然而,即使这里偏误分析的分歧目标存在相关性。为了了解学习的过程,我们必须研究个体学习者在他们特定的学习环境,社会和语言中的发展,而教学法的个体是与错误的性能的研究学习团体,学习团体表现的学习偏误有关,即学习者群体、同样的年龄、性别、学习阶段或母语(科德,1973)。这种差异的客观决定了分析的数据。在这一点上,Svartvik针对术语,提出了一个有用的区分(1973)。

选自:S. P. Corder (1975). Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language Acquisition. Language Teaching, 8, pp 201-218 doi:10.1017/S0261444800002822

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