教师:教师的”语言研究与教育”外文翻译资料

 2023-01-01 19:42:17

教师:教师的'语言研究与教育'

原文作者:

Gloria M. Tang

注:此信息最初由博伊西州立大学双语教育教师准备计划发布和提供。已尽一切努力维护打印文本的完整性。在有些情况下,数字和表格是在电子环境的限制下重建的。

一、前言

本文报道了一项研究,旨在发现教科书插图在不同语言和文化之间是否通用,并发现教科书中常见的图形类型和形式。主要目的是向教师,特别是中学教师和课程制定者宣传哪些图形类型可能促进跨文化学习。'了解教科书中的插图及其使用方式,有助于指导研究人员和理论家解决具有实际意义的重要问题'(Evans、Watson、和Willows,1987年,第86页)。这些知识还可以帮助教师为少数民族语言或英语作为第二语言(ESL)学生提供理解英语书写或教授的内容知识的手段。

二、理论背景

该研究的基本假设是ESL学生可能需要长达七到八年的时间(Cummins,1984;科利尔,1987年),达到学术语言的熟练程度,与讲英语的同龄人相当。这意味着ESL学生在北美的学校中被剥夺了获得内容知识的平等机会,因为内容领域学科以英语授课。教师可以做些什么来使ESL学生在掌握英语语言能力的过程中学习内容领域知识?

据模式理论(巴特利特,1932年;Carrell,1983年),理解文本,无论是口头的还是书面的,是读者/听众的背景知识和文本之间的互动过程。背景知识是以前获得的知识,而'以前获得的知识结构...[或] 架构'(Carrell – Eisterhold,1988年,第76页)代表学习者对一个主题所了解的总和,包括形式架构,即文本和内容架构的组织结构的背景知识,即特定领域的知识(1983年,卡雷尔以学习者的第一语言(L1)和英语获得。理解文本要求学习者能够将文本与自己的形式和内容图图相关联。当移民学生进入英语国家的中学时,他们中的大多数已经在他们的L1中获得了一定数量的图里塔。如果教师能够使用这些架构,他们也许能够提高移民学生对内容知识的理解。以英语为教学语言的教师能否激活 ESL 学生在 L1 中获得的先前知识?

在社会符号学方面(霍奇-克雷斯,1988年),文化中的一切(从广义上来说)都可以被看作是一种交流形式,可以在一套共同的基本规则或原则的基础上加以理解。换句话说,这套规则是特定文化的具体和特征,例如,赌徒或赌场的赞助者,ESL教师。在文化背景下进行沟通行为的人假定对方理解同一套规则和原则。 沟通行为可以口头语言以及非语言和视觉形式进行。因此,交流行为不一定特定于语言;它们可以跨语言理解。然后,我们可以假设,在同一文化中的沟通行为或符号活动,例如中级社会研究教科书文化,可以在语言群体中成功地进行,例如,讲英语的加拿大人和会讲中文的香港学生。 如果在同一文化中的视觉和非语言符号活动,即中级社会研究教科书,跨语言理解,教师和ESL学生可以利用教学材料中的插图和图形来引出学生的记忆图,加强学生学习。本研究的目的之一是发现中级社会研究教科书插图是否在不同语言之间通用,即不同语言领域的教科书中是否发现类似的图形形式、惯例和功能。为了解决这个问题,我进行了两部分的关于不同语言的社会研究教科书的研究。

三、研究内容

1.方法

第一部分研究了不同语言(中文(香港)、日语(日本)和西班牙语(墨西哥)的一级/中级/七年级社会研究教科书,本文的其余部分称为香港、日语和 墨西哥教科书。第二部分将其中一本非加拿大教科书与加拿大七年级社会研究教科书进行了比较。选择教科书的标准是无障碍、年级、学科领域和广泛采用。根据三个理论框架或模型对插图进行计数、分类和分析。

在研究的第一部分,我查阅了一本香港、一本日文和一本墨西哥教科书在数量和形式上的插图,以及另外两本香港、两本日本书和另外一本墨西哥教科书的插图,以作为共同形式的例子。(见表1)。在第二部分,我比较了其中一本香港教科书和一本加拿大教科书(见表1)中的插图(a)数量、(b)形式、(c)参考的清晰度。

Table 1. Textbooks Examined

Country/ City

Level Subject Area

Title of Book

Examined For

Quantity amp; Form

Common Graphic Forms

Function

Hong Kong

Form 1 History

Social Studies

New Edition Chinese History Book 1 (1990)

x

x

x

x

(SS)

History

Hong Kong Today Book 1

(1990)

World History Book 1

(1990)

x

Japanese

Intermediate

Intermediate

x

x

SS

Socials - SS

SS

(1988)

x

SS

Intermediate

Socials -

SS

Geography

x

(1988)

Intermediate

Socials -

History

(1988)

Mexican

Sec 1

Ciencias

x

x

SS

sociales uno

Grade 7

(1986)

x

SS

Primo grado

sep

Ciencias

sociales

(1986)

Canadian

Grade 7 SS

Other Places, Other Times

x

x

插图,即插图是否直接引用(亨特,克里斯莫尔,amp;Pearson,1987年),以及(d)插图相对于文本的功能。下一小节将介绍用于数据收集的工具。

为了比较插图的形式,我采用了Levie和Lentz(1982年)将插图分类为代表性图片和非代表性图片。根据分类的作者,代表性图片是'普通图纸和照片,显示事物的样子'(Levie amp; Lentz,1982年,第214页)。另一方面,非代表性图片包括地图、图表、'描述内容区域关键概念的组织和结构'(Levie amp; Lentz,1982 年,第 215 页)和图形组织者,它们类似于图表,但'是'一种进步 旨在激活学习者相关先验知识的组织者'(Levie amp; Lentz,1982年,第215页)。

  1. 知识框架

用于对插图进行分类的另一个框架是知识框架(Mohan,1986年),这是一个整合语言和内容的概念框架。Mohan(1986年)指出,某些知识结构是整个课程的基础。它们包括分类、原则、评估、描述、时间顺序和选择/决策。当我们在社会研究中对进口和出口进行分类,在《科学》中对开花和非开花植物进行分类时,我们使用相同的知识结构。每种知识结构都有独特的语言特征,在结构上使其与众不同。Mohan 的框架类似于 Meyer(1985 年)将文本分类为修辞模式或顶级文本结构。它们是不同的,因为知识结构基于语义关系,而文本结构是由话语的连续模式决定的。毫无疑问,语言在修辞结构上存在'显著差异'(Kaplan,1987年,第10页)。然而,知识结构是从语义关系构建的,不是唯一的文本结构。如果它们建立在语义关系之上,它们就可以以思维模式的形式存在于头脑中,以口头或书面话语的形式存在于文本材料中,也可以以图形和符号形式存在。 Mohan (1986) 已经表明,由于分类或描述或顺序是相同的过程,而不考虑内容领域,知识结构在内容领域之间是通用的,并且每个知识结构的图形表示也在整个内容区域。某些图形形式通常用于表示整个课程中的每个知识结构(早期和唐,1991 年)或概念关系(Johnson,1989 年)。因此,本研究选择此框架是为了了解社会研究教科书中的图形表示是否跨语言通用。

  1. 功能

函数定义为视觉显示相对于其附带的文本所扮演的角色。为了比较这些书插图的功能,我把它们分为五类:修饰、强化、阐述、总结和比较(Hunter等人,1987年)。 该模型的作者能够验证、使用和发现这五个类别的例子,以研究其社会研究教科书和基础读者(Hunter el al.,1987年)。

  1. 数据分析

使用计算机统计分析系统对收集的数据进行统计分析(SAS,1985年)。采用双向奇方(X 2)测试(Shavelson,1981年)来确定不同语言教科书中的插图数量是否不同或相互相关。

四、研究结果

研究的第一部分考察了三种语言教科书插图的数量和形式,得出了以下结果:1.社会研究教科书有高度说明性,但港文、日文文本较高 图形的百分比高于墨西哥文本。 结果表明,这三本教科书都作了高度说明(见表2),彩色图片的比例很高。作者似乎认为,对于'生活在视觉定义的文化中'的人们来说(伍德沃德,1989年),没有彩色插图,教科书就无魅力了。 香港书的94%,日语的94%,墨西哥书的84%有插图(见表2)。目视检查显示,香港和日本教科书的插图比例高于墨西哥,尽管三本书中插图页的比例差异在 0.05 级别(X 2 = 7.131,df = 4)时并不显著。然而,对插图的检查也表明,在插图的质量、清晰度、颜色和大小方面,香港和日本的书籍都优于墨西哥书籍。许多因素可能促成这种差

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The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, v13 p. 175-194, Spring 1994.

TEXTBOOK ILLUSTRATIONS: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS OF LANGUAGE MINORITY STUDENTS

Gloria M. Tang

Note: This information was originally published and provided by The Bilingual Education Teacher Preparation Program at Boise State University. Every attempt has been made to maintain the integrity of the printed text. In some cases, figures and tables have been reconstructed within the constraints of the electronic environment.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reports on a study which seeks to discover whether textbook illustrations are common across languages and cultures and to discover the common graphic types and forms which exist in textbooks across languages. The main purpose is to inform teachers, particularly secondary school teachers and curriculum developers, of the types of graphics which are likely to facilitate learning across cultures. 'Knowledge of what the illustrations in textbooks are like and how they are used could serve to guide researchers and theoreticians to important questions of practical relevance' (Evans, Watson, amp; Willows, 1987, p. 86). This knowledge could also help teachers to provide means for language minority or English as a second language (ESL) students to understand content knowledge that is written or taught in English.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The underlying assumption of the study is that ESL students may take as long as seven or eight years (Cummins, 1984; Collier, 1987) to reach proficiency in academic language comparable to their English- speaking peers. This means that ESL students are denied equal opportunity to acquire content knowledge in schools in North America because content-area subject disciplines are presented in English. What can teachers do to enable ESL students to learn content-area knowledge while they are still in the process of acquiring English language proficiency?

According to schema theory (Bartlett, 1932; Carrell, 1983), comprehending a text, either spoken or written, is an interactive process between the reader/listeners background knowledge and the text. Background knowledge is previously acquired knowledge, and 'the previously acquired knowledge structures ... [or] schemata' (Carrell amp; Eisterhold, 1988, p. 76) represent the sum of what a learner knows about a topic, both formal schemata, i.e., the background knowledge of organizational structure of the text and content schemata, i.e., knowledge of a particular area (Carrell, 1983), acquired both in the learners first language (L1) and in English. Comprehension of a text requires learners to be able to relate the text to their own formal and content schemata. When immigrant students enter school at the secondary level in an English- speaking country, most of them will have already acquired a quantity of schemata in their L1. If teachers can use these schemata, they may be able to enhance immigrant students comprehension of content knowledge. Can teachers whose medium of instruction is English activate ESL students prior knowledge acquired in their L1?

In terms of social semiotics (Hodge amp; Kress, 1988), everything in a culture (taken in the broadest sense of the term) can be seen as a form of communication which can be understood on the basis of a common set of fundamental rules or principles. In other words, this set of rules is specific to and characteristic of a specific culture, e.g., gamblers or casino-patrons, ESL teachers. People who perform acts of communication in a cultural context assume that the other party understands the same set of rules and principles.

Communication acts can be performed in verbal language as well as nonverbal language and visual forms. Defined thus, communication acts are not necessarily language specific; they can be understood across languages. We can then assume that communication acts or semiotic activities within the same culture, e.g., the culture of intermediate level social studies textbooks, may be performed successfully across linguistic groups, e.g., English speaking Canadians and Chinese-speaking Hong Kong students. If visual and nonverbal semiotic activities within the same culture i.e., intermediate social studies textbooks, are understood across languages, teachers and ESL students can take advantage of illustrations and graphics in instructional materials to elicit students memory schemata and enhance student learning. One of the aims of this study is to discover whether intermediate social studies textbook illustrations are common across languages, i.e., whether or not similar graphic forms, conventions, and functions are found in textbooks from different linguistic areas. To address the issue I conducted a two-part study of social studies textbooks across different languages.

METHOD

Part One of the study examined social studies textbooks at the form one/intermediate/grade seven level across different languages-Chinese (Hong Kong), Japanese (Japan), and Spanish (Mexico)-referred to in the rest of this paper as the Hong Kong, Japanese, and Mexican textbooks respectively. Part Two compared one of the non-Canadian textbooks to a Canadian grade seven social studies textbook. The criteria for the selection of textbooks were accessibility, grade level, subject area, and wide adoption. The illustrations were counted, classified according to three theoretical frameworks or models, and analyzed.

SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS AND CONSTRUCTS

In the first part of the study, I examined the illustrations of one Hong Kong, one Japanese, and one Mexican textbook in terms of quantity and form, and two other Hong Kong, two other Japanese, and one other Mexican textbook at the same level for examples of common forms (see Table 1). In the

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